SPECIES OF MEAT ANIMALS | Game and Exotic Animals

L.C. Hoffman , D. Cawthorn , in Encyclopedia of Meat Sciences (Second Edition), 2014

Wild Suids

This section discusses various wild Suid species (wild boar, warthog, and bushpig), but will not focus on feral pigs (escaped domestic pigs).

Wild boar, belonging to the genus Sus and pig family (Suidae), is regarded as the wild ancestor of the domestic pig. The species is native to many parts of Central and Northern Europe, the Mediterranean and Asia, but has also been introduced into some regions (notably Australasia and the Americas). Although long valued for food and recreational hunting, the animals have also come to be regarded as agricultural pests and a threat to the ecosystem. The recent widespread intensifying of wild boar densities has stimulated interest in the animals as meat producers and also as a potential farmed species. Today, the wild boar is propagated in Canada, Japan, the United States, and the Americas.

Dressed weights (assumed to include the heads) for 3- to 4-year-old hunted wild boar have been reported to be 65–108   kg for males and 50–80   kg for females. The carcass yields of animals hunted in Poland varied from 59% to 74% (the skin contributed ~16–29% of initial weight), and increased with bodyweight. Yields of 81–83% have, however, been reported for adult and medium-sized boars hunted in Croatia and Italy, respectively. In comparison to the domestic pig, wild boar exhibits more carcass fatness and larger loin areas, while having darker, leaner, and less tender meat. The mean proximate composition of wild boar hunted in Italy was described as approximately 70.5% moisture, 25.9% protein, 1.5% fat, and 1.2% ash. Although the flavor and fatty acid composition of the wild boar may be affected by the gender and age of the animals, this is also largely influenced by the diet provided (as with other monogastric animals). The latter is largely evidenced in the depot fat of the wild boar, where unlike ruminants, the double bonds of fatty acids do not become hydrogenated during the process of digestion. An example of the fatty acid profile of hunted wild boar is shown in Table 11. The ratio of PUFA:SFA in wild boar is estimated at 0.52–0.6.

Table 11. The lipid, cholesterol, and fatty acid profile of M. psoas major from wild boar hunted in Portugal

Adult males (n=6) Adult females (n=10) Youngster (n=9)
Carcass weight (kg) 51 43 17
Lipid (g per 100   g meat) 4.75 4.55 4.68
Cholesterol (mg per 100   g meat) 58.7 55.6 57.1
Fatty acid (% of total FA)
C14:0 1.0 1 0.9
C16:0 20.7 20.7 20.4
C16:1 cis-9 2.3 2.2 1.9
C17:0 0.2 0.2 0.3
C17:1 cis-9 0.1 0.1 0.1
C18:0 11.5 10.5 10.4
C18:1 trans 0.4 0.4 0.4
C18:1 cis-9 36.1 39.7 39.6
C18:2 n-6 18.8 15.9 16.4
C18:2 cis-9 trans 11 0.2 0.2 0.2
C18:3 n-3 1.0 0.9 1
C20:0 0.1 0.2 0.1
C20:2 n-6 0.4 0.4 0.4
C20:3 n-6 0.5 0.4 0.4
C20:4 n-6 4.4 4.5 4.9
C20:5 n-3 0.4 0.4 0.7
SFA 34.7 34.2 33.3
cis-MUFA 38.9 42.6 42.2
n-6 24.0 21.1 22.1
n-3 1.4 1.4 1.7
PUFA 25.4 22.5 23.8
PUFA/SFA 0.6 0.52 0.55
n-6/n-3 17.0 15.5 12.8

Abbreviations: MUFA, monounsaturated fatty acids; PUFA, polyunsaturated fatty acids; SFA, saturated fatty acids.

The warthog (Phacochoerus africanus) is a further wild member of the Suidae that has a natural distribution in the grasslands, savannah, and woodlands of sub-Saharan Africa. The species is characterized by a high fecundity (having 4–5 piglets per litter, gestation period of 167–175 days) and is frequently regarded as an agricultural pest in many farming regions. The meat has been consumed by locals in South Africa for many years and it is also being increasingly sought by tourists visiting the country's restaurants as part of a novel, uniquely African culinary experience. Recent research has focused on obtaining an enhanced understanding of the chemical composition of the meat, the development of value-added products and the promotion of its consumption based on its health and exotic qualities, with all these activities aimed at providing incentives for better management of growing warthog populations.

Mature warthogs can attain body weights of 100   kg in males and 70   kg in the females. The dressing percentage is in the order of 52%, which is somewhat lower than domestic pigs. However, in contrast to domestic pigs, carcass weight in warthogs does not normally include the head, skin, and adjacent subcutaneous fat layers, which can largely account for the aforementioned factor. In warthogs, the contribution of the shoulder (37%), hind legs (32%), belly (14%), back (9%), and loin (7%) to the cold carcass weight also differs from that obtained from domestic pigs.

Findings relating to meat quality characteristics suggest that warthogs are prone to develop pale, soft, and exudative (PSE) meat when exposed to ante mortem stress, which is a similar phenomenon seen in domestic pigs under comparable conditions.

Warthog meat is of a high nutritional value and has a favorable fatty acid profile (Table 12), although the latter can be influenced by the diet as with the wild boar. The ratio of PUFA to SFA is approximately 1.33 (compared to 0.46–0.64 in domestic pigs), which is well above the minimum level of 0.4–0.5 recommended to be appropriate for human health.

Table 12. Means and standard deviations (SD) of the proximate and fatty acid components of warthog loins (n=5)

Component %
Mean SD
Moisture 74.04 0.94
Total lipid 1.69 1.39
Protein 22.14 0.30
Ash 1.29 0.03
Fatty acids
C14:0 0.75 0.66
C16:0 19.95 2.25
C18:0 14.68 2.96
C20:0 0.14 0.02
C22:0 0.13 0.05
C24:0 0.10 0.09
Total SFA 35.75 3.01
C16:1n7 0.74 0.76
C18:1n9 15.79 11.23
C20:1n9 0.07 0.06
C24:1n9 0.10 0.19
Total MUFA 16.70 12.10
C18:2n6 26.12 9.64
C18:3n6 0.17 0.05
C18:3n3 7.26 7.97
C20:2n6 0.30 0.02
C20:3n6 1.06 0.60
C20:4n6 7.48 4.94
C20:3n3 0.94 0.35
C20:5n3 0.91 0.60
C22:2n6 0.07 0.16
C22:4n6 0.40 0.37
C22:3n3 0.00 0.00
C22:5n3 2.44 2.01
C22:6n3 0.42 0.35
Total PUFA 47.56 10.35

Abbreviations: MUFA, monounsaturated fatty acids; PUFA, polyunsaturated fatty acids, SFA, saturated fatty acids.

The bushpig (Potamochoerus larvatus) is a nocturnal wild pig species found in woodlands, forests, riverine vegetation, and reed beds in parts of East and Southern Africa. Similar to the warthog, many farmers in these regions consider the bush pig as a problem animal, as it thrives on many agricultural products and unearths root crops in their masses. In spite of this, the meat of the bushpig is still relished as a delicacy. Nonetheless, there is currently little available data on its quality and composition characteristics.

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Historical Perspectives of Livestock Handling

Bonnie V. Beaver , Donald L. Höglund , in Efficient Livestock Handling, 2016

Pigs

Wild boars ( Sus scrofa) had the widest distribution of all the early species, extending from Europe into what is now Southeast Asia. The ancestral forms of the European and Asian subspecies are estimated to have diverged from each other between 500,000 and one million years ago. 15,17 Then around 8000   years ago, modern pigs (Sus domesticus) were domesticated in multiple sites. The mtDNA evidence suggests that there were at least six independent domestication events, ranging from one involving the Near East/European wild boar species to one from an Eastern Asian subspecies. 4,14,23,24,41 Initially, pig meat was not particularly favored, compared to that from sheep and goats, but as "farming" moved from Western Asia into Northern and Western Europe, cattle and pigs were more highly favored. 4,5 Inbreeding between domestic and wild boar species probably happened numerous times, particularly in Europe, where DNA traces of Near Eastern domestic pigs were eventually replaced almost entirely by domesticated local stock. 22 Continued strong selection within the European pigs gave rise to anatomical differences that now distinguish them, including the elongation of the back and an increased number of vertebrae. 32 Even with these significant anatomic changes and years of selection toward domestication, only 7% of the genome has been changed. 1

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Snow Leopard Prey and Diet

David Mallon , ... Per Wegge , in Snow Leopards, 2016

Other Ungulates

Wild boar (Sus scrofa) has been recorded as prey in Central Asia (Heptner and Sludskii, 1972) and Zhiryakov and Baidavletov (2002) found wild boar remains in 63.6% of one small sample of scats from northern Kazakhstan. Moose (Alces alces) has also been recorded as prey in Kazakhstan (Zhiryakov and Baidavletov, 2002). Other species include goitered gazelle (Gazella subgutturosa) (Lhagvasuren and Munkhtsog, 2000; Novikov, 1956); wild camel (Camelus ferus), and wild ass (Equus hemionus) in Mongolia (Dash et al., 1977; Tulgat and Schaller, 1992); and goral (Nemorhaedus spp.), serow (Capricornis spp.), and takin (Budorcas taxicolor) (Dang, 1967), though it is unclear if all these species were confirmed through dietary analysis or inferred on the basis of local reports or range overlaps.

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Transmission dynamics of foodborne parasites in pork (pig and wild boar)

H.L. Enemark , ... L. Alban , in Foodborne Parasites in the Food Supply Web, 2015

11.3.2 Entry points

11.3.2.1 Parasite stages in meat or meat products

Trichinella infection in pigs and wild boar is a result of ingestion of the first-stage larvae (see Figure 11.2) in the musculature of an infected animal. The larvae penetrate the striated muscles of the host and encapsulate in the tissue, forming a so-called nurse cell (Pozio, 2007). Once encapsulated, they become dormant without any capability to amplify (Pozio and Murrell, 2006).

Figure 11.2. Trichinella spiralis first-stage muscle larva released from encapsulated tissue cysts by artificial pepsin–HCl digestion. The stichocytes are clearly visible as dark, angular cells in the anterior part of the larva (1000   μm long).

 Photo by Heidi L. Enemark, Technical University of Denmark, National Veterinary Institute.

11.3.2.2 Persistence and infectivity

Trichinella larvae are well protected by the modified muscle fiber ("nurse cell"). Encapsulated larvae can therefore survive and remain infective for years. Certain Trichinella species can survive freezing. For example, T. britovi and especially Trichinella nativa will need to be exposed to −   18   °C for prolonged periods of time before they die (Pozio et al., 2006). In general, the parasite's capacity to survive freezing is months to years in muscles of carnivores and horses but only days or weeks in swine (Table 11.2). Most species can survive for at least some time in putrefying flesh (Pozio, 2007; von Köller et al., 2001). The infectivity of Trichinella in pork depends on processing prior to consumption. If pork is heat-treated sufficiently, the risk of Trichinella infection is absent. However, if the pork is consumed without any eliminating processing steps—such as freezing and heat treatment—then the infectivity remains. For pork, this makes ready-to-eat products risky—in particular dry-cured sausages, bacon, and freshly made sausages intended to be consumed without cooking.

Table 11.2. Required combinations of time and temperature to ensure inactivation of Trichinella larvae present in domestic pork

Temperature °F (°C) Time required to inactivate Trichinella larvae References
Products in separate pieces not exceeding 6 in. (≈   15   cm) (days) Products in separate pieces exceeding 6 in. (≈   15   cm) but not 27 in. (≈   69   cm a ) (days)
5 (−   15.0) 20 30 EU Comission Regulation No. 2075/2005 (Anon., 2005)
Recommendations on methods for the control of Trichinella in domestic and wild animals intended for human consumption (ICT, 2006)
United States Department of Agriculture's Code of Federal Regulations; 9CFR318.10 (Anon., 2014c)
−   10 (−   23.3) 10 20
−   20 (−   28.9) 6 12
120 (49.0) 21   h
122 (50.0) 9.5   h
124 (51.1) 4.5   h
126 (52.2) 2   h
128 (53.4) 1   h
130 (54.5) 30   min
132 (55.6) 15   min
134 (56.7) 6   min
136 (57.8) 3   min
138 (58.9) 2   min
140 (60.0) 1   min
142 (61.1) 1   min
144 (62.2) Instant
a
According to the EU Regulation 2075/2005, pieces must be up to 50   cm only.

11.3.2.3 Distribution in carcass

In the domestic pig, the three main predilection sites for T. spiralis, T. britovi, and T. pseudospiralis are the diaphragm, the tongue, and the masseter muscle, respectively (Forbes and Gajadhar, 1999), but Trichinella larvae may also be present in other striated muscles (Ribicich et al., 2001 ). In wild boars, the main predilection sites are the diaphragm, the forearm muscle, and the tongue ( Kapel, 2001).

11.3.2.4 Risk factors and routes of transmission to humans

Consumption of raw, cured, fermented, or undercooked meat containing infective larvae can cause infection in humans. Infection via wild boar is often associated with the consumption of game meat that has not been tested for Trichinella spp. Infection via meat from domestic pigs is most commonly related to the consumption of meat from outdoor-reared pigs or backyard pigs. The main risk of infection for these groups of pigs is posed by the feeding of food waste containing pork scraps (Gamble et al., 2000). The presence of Trichinella in domestic pigs or wild boar is a risk factor for transmission to humans, with raw home-butchered pork that has not been subject to testing being the major risk factor, in accordance with observations by Petri et al. (1988). However, in a number of countries, T. spiralis is also frequently found in wildlife, and in some countries the parasite can occur in the domestic cycle without any documented infection in the human population. This is probably due to the practice of eating only well-cooked pork as well as the execution of Trichinella testing as a part of the meat inspection.

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Behavioral Genetics in Pigs and Relations to Welfare

Lotta Rydhmer , Laurianne Canario , in Genetics and the Behavior of Domestic Animals (Second Edition), 2014

The Social Pig

The group size is quite similar for wild boars, feral pigs and farmed pigs, although these animals live in a wide range of habitat types and resource availability. Under natural conditions, the groups are based on matriarchal hierarchies ( Stolba and Wood-Gush, 1989) and males are loosely associated with these groups (Mauget, 1981). On the farm, pigs born in different families are often grouped together in small pens. Whereas aggression is avoided in the wild, where different groups seldom meet, mixing with unacquainted pigs is frequent in pig production. When unacquainted pigs meet they fight to establish dominance. During the first 24 hours after mixing, most pigs are involved in many fights which leads to energy expenditure and injuries such as skin lesions. Turner et al. (2006a) counted skin lesions on pigs after mixing as a measurement of aggressive behavior. Ten per cent of the pigs had more than 50 skin lesions. The frequency and intensity of aggressive interactions decline over time after mixing, until social relationships stabilize. However, an ongoing lower level of aggression persists to maintain social relationships.

Aggressiveness in pigs is known to be repeatable over time and across different situations and it is partly influenced by the genotype. A pig's decision to engage in an aggressive interaction or not may be made according to the relative costs and benefits of the behavior, which will vary depending on resource scarcity and the other pigs' behavior (Enquist and Leimar, 1983). Arey and Franklin (1995) studied groups of 15 pigs and found that in 60% of the dyads (pairs) there were no fights.

Pigs can identify unfamiliar individuals in large groups of up to 80 pigs (Turner et al., 2001). Gilts and sows are able to remember their group mates and identify them when they meet again after several weeks (Arey, 1999). Thus fighting can be avoided. The stability of the group of pregnant sows is maintained by a dominance hierarchy that depends on subordinates avoiding the dominant sows (Jensen, 1982). The dominance order is, however, resource relative; group members may have different dominance orders for different resources (Lindberg, 2001). Whether it is worth it or not to initiate a fight depends on group size and the predictability of the resource, e.g. feeding. In large groups, a higher number of competitors dilutes the effectiveness of aggression and increases its energetic cost (Fraser et al., 1995).

Individual differences in aggressiveness can be measured in a resident–intruder test (Réale et al., 2007). The tested pig, i.e. the resident, encounters in its home pen an intruder (that should be of slightly smaller size) and the latency until attack by the resident is recorded. Recording aggressive behavior among pigs in a group is difficult since the pigs must be identified individually. Aggressiveness can be investigated by direct or video observations, either by recording the total number of initiated and received attacks for each pig or by recording the identity and outcome of each dyadic encounter.

In general, pigs search for positive and close interactions with humans. Fear of humans is an indicator of low welfare and different methods are used to record fear. One way, used by Velie et al. (2009) and others, is to let a person unfamiliar to the pigs enter the pen and stand there motionless, and the latency for pigs to approach and touch the human is recorded. The success of this test relies on the pigs' motivation to voluntarily approach the human. The trait "easy to handle" can be measured during routine work, e.g., when pigs are moved between pens or weighed.

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Structurally Primitive Haemaphysalines

G. Geevarghese , A.C. Mishra , in Haemaphysalis Ticks of India, 2011

Host 114,117,119,139 114 117 119 139

Immature stages : Asiatic jackal, toddy cat, wild boar, mouse deer, crested porcupine, black-naped hare, jungle cat, langur monkey, cattle, buffalo, rat (5, 6, 9), squirrel, shrew, leopard, wild dog, bonnet monkey.

Adults : Asiatic jackal, wild boar, mouse deer, sambar deer, crested porcupine, monkey, cattle, small mammals, bird species (spotted dove), wild goat, leopard, chital deer, barking deer, buffalo, jungle cat, leopard, wild hare, spotted deer, wild dog, bonnet monkey, langur monkey, and from flag dragging in Sagar district of Karnataka (India).

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Suidae and Tayassuidae

María Ángeles Jiménez Martínez , ... Karen A. Terio , in Pathology of Wildlife and Zoo Animals, 2018

Abstract

The Suidae and Tayassuidae live on all continents except Antarctica. True wild boars were indigenous to Europe and Asia and are the ancestors to the domestic pig; with whom they share the same scientific name Sus scrofa. Wild boars have been introduced to the Americas and many islands. Because of the close genetic relationship, in many areas they have interbred with domestic pigs and formed considerable populations of feral suids that represent wild boar and feral pig crosses. Wild suid populations are relatively hardy and most disease research has been focused on their potential as a reservoir for diseases of concern for commercial pig production. The Togian Island babirusa, pygmy hog, Visayan warty pig, Javan warty pig, and Chacoan peccary are endangered. For all species, hunting, habitat loss, and hybridization are important threats to conservation.

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Update on Yersinia as a foodborne pathogen: analysis and control

T. Nesbakken , in Advances in Microbial Food Safety, 2015

Wild boars

Y. enterocolitica and Y. pseudotuberculosis have been isolated from tonsils and fecal samples from feral wild boars. The bio/serotypes identified could be associated with human disease ( Fredriksson-Ahomaa et al., 2009, Wacheck et al., 2010). According to data reported by EU member states in the framework of the Zoonoses Directive (Anon., 2003) in 2004–2011, 5.1% of wild boars were infected with Y. enterocolitica and 0.4% with Y. pseudotuberculosis.

By slaughter and dressing of wild boars the carcasses are skinned rather than scalded. Accordingly, the flora from the surface represents an extra possibility for contamination of the carcass with Y. enterocolitica. Therefore, meat from wild boars represents a significant concern regarding Y. enterocolitica because of poorer slaughter hygiene (skinning versus scalding) (EFSA, 2013a).

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African Swine Fever Virus Biology and Vaccine Approaches

Yolanda Revilla , ... Juergen A. Richt , in Advances in Virus Research, 2018

Abstract

African swine fever (ASF) is an acute and often fatal disease affecting domestic pigs and wild boar, with severe economic consequences for affected countries. ASF is endemic in sub-Saharan Africa and the island of Sardinia, Italy. Since 2007, the virus emerged in the republic of Georgia, and since then spread throughout the Caucasus region and Russia. Outbreaks have also been reported in Belarus, Ukraine, Lithuania, Latvia, Estonia, Romania, Moldova, Czech Republic, and Poland, threatening neighboring West European countries. The causative agent, the African swine fever virus (ASFV), is a large, enveloped, double-stranded DNA virus that enters the cell by macropinocytosis and a clathrin-dependent mechanism. African Swine Fever Virus is able to interfere with various cellular signaling pathways resulting in immunomodulation, thus making the development of an efficacious vaccine very challenging. Inactivated preparations of African Swine Fever Virus do not confer protection, and the role of antibodies in protection remains unclear. The use of live-attenuated vaccines, although rendering suitable levels of protection, presents difficulties due to safety and side effects in the vaccinated animals. Several African Swine Fever Virus proteins have been reported to induce neutralizing antibodies in immunized pigs, and vaccination strategies based on DNA vaccines and recombinant proteins have also been explored, however, without being very successful. The complexity of the virus particle and the ability of the virus to modulate host immune responses are most likely the reason for this failure. Furthermore, no permanent cell lines able to sustain productive virus infection by both virulent and naturally attenuated African Swine Fever Virus strains exist so far, thus impairing basic research and the commercial production of attenuated vaccine candidates.

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Viral Pathogens of Domestic Animals and Their Impact on Biology, Medicine and Agriculture

P. Murcia , ... M. Palmarini , in Encyclopedia of Microbiology (Third Edition), 2009

Classical Swine Fever

Classical swine fever (CSF; also known as hog cholera) is a contagious disease of swine and wild boar. CSF is probably the most important transmissible disease of pigs and it is caused by classical swine fever virus (CSFV), a member of the Flaviviridae family within the Pestivirus genus. Virions are enveloped with an approximate diameter of 40–60   nm and a positive, single-stranded RNA genome approximately 12.5   kb in length.

CSFV induces a disease of variable severity depending on breed and age of the infected animals, virulence of the virus, and other ill-defined factors. Typical signs of the classical form of CSF appear after an incubation period of 2–4 days and include anorexia, hyperthermia, and depression, followed by pneumonia caused by opportunistic infections, vomiting, and diarrhea or constipation. Neurological signs such as paralysis, circling, tremors, and in some cases convulsions can also be observed. Generally, the disease affects only a few animals during the initial period of an outbreak, but after around 10 days morbidity can reach up to 100% of the herd. Mortality rates can also reach 100% in a susceptible herd. Chronic forms of CSF have also been described, with a longer incubation period where clinical signs are intermittent and death can occur weeks or months after initial infection. In utero infection is common in sows and usually results in abortion, mummification of the fetus, or stillbirth. Piglets may be persistently infected and die within weeks or months after birth.

Viral entry commonly takes place via ingestion and is followed by viral replication in the epithelial crypts of the tonsils as well as in granulocytic cells and monocytes. A second round of viral multiplication takes place in lymphoid organs, endothelial cells, and bone marrow, causing leukopenia, severe immunosuppression, and hemorrhages due to endothelial damage. Characteristic gross lesions include submucosal and subserosal petechial hemorrhages and congestion. Infarction in the spleen is typical and almost pathognomonic of CSF. In chronic cases, the most common lesion observed is atrophy of the thymus and germinal centers in the lymph nodes and spleen. Diagnosis of CSF requires laboratory confirmation, being the traditional method, viral isolation, and the observation of viral antigens in frozen tissue sections of affected organs.

Hog cholera is transmitted directly from pig to pig, and indirectly via pig products (fresh, frozen, and cured pig meat) and fomites. Transmission by semen from an infected boar stud was important during the outbreak of CSF that took place in the Netherlands in 1997–98.

CSF is endemic in Asia, Central America, and some parts of South America. The epidemiological situation in most of Africa is uncertain, while North America and Australasia have been free of the disease for a long time. Western Europe has made significant progress toward eradication, although intermittent reintroductions of CSF have occurred. In Central and Eastern Europe the disease is still present, although some countries have followed the nonvaccination model imposed by the European Union. The presence of large populations of wild boar in certain regions of Europe makes eradication of CSF extremely unlikely. In countries where the disease is prevalent, control measures include prophylactic vaccination with attenuated vaccines. In the European Union, vaccination is banned and control measures in an outbreak situation include destruction of affected and in-contact animals and restriction on animal movements.

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